The German Uranium Project
… and the Farm Hall protocols
A presentation as part of the seminar »Science, Technology and War in the 20th Century« at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, winter semester 2023/2024. The lecturer for the seminar was PD Dr. Désirée Schauz. Held on February 2, 2024.
Last modified on:
The beginnings of modern physics
The first half of the 20th century in physics was characterized by the radical change in the understanding of physics, from Newtonian physics to quantum physics.
1900
1901: “On the law of energy distribution in the normal spectrum” Bildquellen Portrait of Max Planck: Portrait of Max Planck. Photograph by Transocean, Smithsonian Libraries
1905
“On the electrodynamics of moving bodies” Bildquellen Einstein, at the age of 25.: Wikimedia Commons
1907
1913
1914
The First World War
Many German academics supported the war, or prepared enthusiastically for it. Prominent representatives volunteered as soldiers or concentrated on war-related research. A nationalist and highly patriotic mindset was the rule, not the exception.
Germany’s scientific community at that time included only a few pacifists. One of their best-known representatives is Albert Einstein, a native of Württemberg who taught in Berlin during the First World War and received a Prussian citizenship in 1914.
Attitudes of German scientists
- Pronounced patriotism & nationalism
- Kriegseuphorie & »Selbstmobilisierung«
- The German research community also grows around poison gas research during the war years
- This does not exclude researchers who previously focused on international cooperation, such as
- Otto Hahn. He conducted research in England and Canada before returning to Germany in 1907
- War is seen as justified
- German war crimes are denied or rationalized
- Physicists seem to be particularly enthusiastic about war
- Exceptions have been rare
German war crimes …
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Germany’s breach of international law in the first days of the war and the subsequent cruel behavior of German soldiers towards Belgian civilians caused Germany’s reputation to plummet worldwide.
The destruction of Belgian cultural treasures, such as the Library of Leuven, earned Germany and the Germans the reputation of behaving “like the Huns”.
In response to scathing articles in the press of the Entente states, German academics responded first with the “Manifesto of the 93” and later with the “Declaration of the University Teachers of the German Reich”. Both manifestos partly denied German war crimes against the Belgian population and partly defended them, emphasizing the right of the Germans to “survive”. The following outrage pushed the German academic community internationally even further to the sidelines.
The chemist Fritz Haber developed poison gas at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, which was used for the first time on April 22 1915 at Ypres.
In Haber’s view, poison gas could not only be one of the most effective weapons, but also one of the most humane. (Paraphrased)
His wife Clara Immerwahr, also a chemist and a staunch pacifist, shot herself a few days later in the garden of the villa they shared1.
Despite Haber’s status as a war criminal, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1918 for his work on ammonia synthesis. Also known as the “Haber-Bosch process”.
… and the involvement of German nuclear scientists
Signing of the Manifesto of the 93 et al:
- Fritz Haber
- Max Planck
Signing of the declaration of the university professors of the German Reich and others:
- Otto Hahn
- Max von Laue
- Max Planck
(In)direct participation in war:
- Otto Hahn (poison gas research, under Fritz Haber)
- Lise Meitner (X-ray nurse in the Austrian army)
The wartime support of German scientists, but above all the development of poison gas by Fritz Haber, permanently damaged the reputation of German science abroad.
Prior to the war, important scientific journals, especially physics journals, were published in Germany and in the German language. After the manifestos had been published, many academic libraries cancelled their subscriptions. In the process, English language journals gained in importance.
A hit, from which German academic publishing would never recover.
Prior to the war, important scientific journals, especially physics journals, were published in Germany and in the German language. After the manifestos had been published, many academic libraries cancelled their subscriptions. In the process, English language journals gained in importance.
A hit, from which German academic publishing would never recover.
- However, there is no evidence of a direct correlation. ↩︎
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1.
FEYERABEND, Paul. Against method. . Reprinted der 3. ed. 1993. London : Verso, 2002. ISBN 978-0-86091-481-5 978-0-86091-646-8. Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-06-02T21:28:13.703Z
1.
ARENDT, Hannah. Lying in politics: Reflections on the pentagon papers. The New York Review of Books. Online. 18 November 1971. Vol. 17, no. 8. [Accessed 1 June 2025]. Available from: https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1971/11/18/lying-in-politics-reflections-on-the-pentagon-pape/
When we talk about lying, and especially about lying among acting men, let us remember that the lie did not creep into politics by some accident of human sinfulness; moral outrage, for this reason alone, is not likely to make it disappear. The deliberate falsehood deals with contingent facts, that is with matters which carry no inherent truth within themselves, no necessity to be as they are; factual truths are never compellingly true. The historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily lives; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs.
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-06-01T11:40:27.976Z
1.
Part I — The Basics. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
Read_Status: In Progress
Read_Status_Date: 2025-06-01T10:16:37.447Z
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Bibliography. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Index of Manuscripts. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Abbreviations. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 7 — Memory and the book. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Title. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Appendix A. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 3 — Elementary memory design. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 1 — Models for the Memory. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T05:32:29.580Z
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Introduction. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Notes. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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General Index. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 5 — Memory and the ethics of reading. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Appendix C. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Preface to the Second Edition. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Illustrations. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Appendix B. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 6 — Memory and authority. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Series Page. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Contents. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 2 — Descriptions of the neuropsychology of memory. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Chapter 4 — The arts of memory. In : CARRUTHERS, Mary, The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T05:39:26.722Z
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Part VI — The Classics and Related Disciplines. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Part VII — The Classics since Antiquity. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Part V — The Written Word. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-28T20:56:00.646Z
1.
Acknowledgements. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Part II — Language. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T04:46:43.278Z
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Preface. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Abbreviations. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Part IV — The Physical Remains. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Part III — The Traditional Fields. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Figures. In : SCHAPS, David, Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T04:49:32.528Z
1.
Heisenberg’s uranium and heavy water were loaded up into trucks, which carried the supplies first to Kummersdorf and then down to Stadtilm, where Diebner had recently relocated his own lab. Gerlach had hoped to take the opportunity of the evacuation to pool together Diebner’s and Heisenberg’s combined resources and create the largest experimental pile that they possibly could. But when Heisenberg, who was already down in Hechingen, caught wind that Diebner, the second-rate army scientist who had been irking Heisenberg throughout the war, would be the one directing the construction and operation of this final large-scale experiment, he was incensed. In a letter to Elisabeth, he vented his frustrations: “In our nuclear physics group, the internal battle (Diebner vs. K.W.I) has broken out anew, probably as a result of the new wave of conscriptions and the threatening danger in the east. Maybe I will have to travel in the next days to Thuringia (Stadtilm) on account of this; I do not really like it, but perhaps it is necessary.”5 Even in the last hours of the war, Heisenberg was unwilling to allow his rival to have access to materials that had been assigned to his group, and to possibly take the credit for building what they believed would be the world’s first critical reactor, should one be achieved.
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Back in Berlin, Heisenberg was busy assembling yet another pile. Gerlach, who could feel the clock beginning to run out, kept pushing Heisenberg to conduct a final large-scale experiment in a grand, last-ditch effort to achieve criticality. Finally acknowledging the superiority of Diebner’s three-dimensional lattice design, Heisenberg had relented, and was constructing a lattice of uranium metal cubes suspended from aircraft cable into a cylindrical pit of heavy water when, on January 30, 1945, Gerlach received notice that Soviet forces were advancing fast toward the German capital. That night, he ordered Heisenberg and his team to evacuate.
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Another layered experiment, B-VII, assembled in late 1944, used 1.25 tons of uranium metal plates and 1.5 tons of heavy water. This setup showed even better neutron multiplication than B-VI, though the results still fell short of those being achieved by Diebner’s cube-based lattice experiments. Still, it seemed like the German scientists were slowly making progress toward criticality.
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The final Gottow experiment G-III produced a 6 percent increase in the number of neutrons measured coming out than there were going in. While still far from achieving criticality, Diebner’s lattice design had unequivocally proved itself to be on the right track.
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A self-sustaining nuclear reactor has been achieved when the number of free neutrons in the system at any time remains constant; that is, the number of neutrons causing fissions is equal to the number being generated by those fissions minus the number lost or absorbed. This state, once reached, is called criticality. Building a reactor that could reach and maintain criticality was the first task facing Germany’s Uranium Club in their pursuit of nuclear power.
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Inside the rancid bundle, Goudsmit found the data to prove what he had suspected for months: the Germans had not been successful in creating a functioning nuclear reactor. They hadn’t even been close. In fact, Goudsmit reasoned, as he scribbled out the math on a scrap of paper, the data suggested that they would have needed a reactor that was at least 50 percent bigger, both in uranium and heavy water moderator to have a chance of achieving criticality. Goudsmit was struck by how small the sum total of Germany’s nuclear program, now laid out in full before the Americans, really was. The entire program took up little more than a cave, and a few rooms in a textile factory and school building.
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HIEBERT, Miriam E. and KOETH, Timothy W. The uranium club. . Chicago Review Press, 2023.
Item ID: _:n0
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T22:35:49.149Z
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HEMPEN, Daniela. The negotiation of gender and power in medieval german writings. Online. 2009. [Accessed 25 May 2025]. DOI 10.14288/1.0089127. Download
Drawing on insights from feminist scholarship and gender studies, this thesis offers a new reading of selected medieval German texts with a special emphasis on the negotiation of gender and power. All three parts of the thesis demonstrate how the use of modern theories helps us to re-examine a medieval text’s implications and ethical values, and to reconsider traditional views of the text. Part One focuses on the discussion of gender boundaries. Didactic and fictional texts, such as Thomasin von Zerclaere’s Der welsche Gast and Ulrich von Liechtenstein’s Frauendienst, show that violations of gender boundaries and the questioning of the traditional power relationship between the genders are crucial to the textual negotiation of masculinity and femininity. As I demonstrate in Part Two, the unequal relationship between men and women is especially important for the system of male homosocial bonding underlying medieval society. Examples of the physical and symbolic exchange of women and their favours are offered by didactic texts, such as Marquard vom Stein’s Der Ritter vom Turn, and fictional texts, such as the Nibelungenlied. Aspects of this exchange are not solely related to medieval marriage practices, but are also reflected in courtly rituals, such as “frouwen schouwen” (watching the ladies). The importance of the conventionally beautiful female body as an object of exchange becomes obvious in Part Three, where I examine encounters between Christian knights and women defying the norms of feminine beauty. Here I focus on female figures that are defined as “doubly Other”: both in their relationship to the masculine Self, and in their relationship to the ideal of medieval Christian femininity. Texts such as Wolfdietrich B and Der Strieker’s Die Konigin vom Mohrenland show how the negotiation of gender and power assumes a new dimension in light male encounters with Wild Women, heathen women, “supernatural” women and old women, where the male partner often has to struggle to uphold his privileged masculine position.
Publisher: University of British Columbia
Version Number: 1
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T19:17:31.910Z
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CORÈDON, Christopher and WILLIAMS, Ann. Regnal Dates of the Kings of Wessex and of England. In : A Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases. Online. 1. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2005. [Accessed 26 February 2025]. ISBN 978-1-84615-393-8. Download
The first dictionary of medieval terms intended for the non-specialist with an interest in the medieval world.
1.
CORÈDON, Christopher and WILLIAMS, Ann. Select Bibliography. In : A Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases. Online. 1. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2005. [Accessed 26 February 2025]. ISBN 978-1-84615-393-8. Download
The first dictionary of medieval terms intended for the non-specialist with an interest in the medieval world.
1.
CORÈDON, Christopher and WILLIAMS, Ann. A Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases. Online. Boydell & Brewer, 2005. ISBN 978-1-84384-023-7.
Cambridge Core
The first dictionary of medieval terms intended for the non-specialist with an interest in the medieval world.
1.
CARRUTHERS, Mary. The book of memory : A study of memory in medieval culture. Online. New York, UNITED STATES : Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-107-70353-7. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=1543657 Download Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T05:31:25.354Z
1.
SCHAPS, David. Index. In : Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T04:53:03.164Z
1.
SCHAPS, David. Handbook for classical research. Online. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM : Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ISBN 978-0-203-84437-3. Available from: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=574647 Download
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-25T04:42:57.667Z
1.
GRIFFIN, Roger. Faschismus: Eine Einführung in die vergleichende Faschismusforschung. . Hannover : ibidem, 2020. ISBN 978-3-8382-7397-6. Download
Der Begriff „Faschismus“ scheint zu einem Allerweltsbegriff geworden zu sein: Ausgehend von Mussolinis „Faschisten“, übernommen von den Nationalsozialisten unter Hitler, findet er sich heute in nahezu allen politischen Auseinandersetzungen: Trump, Putin, Orbán, Bolsonaro, in Deutschland Höcke, die AfD. Während einige argumentierten, dem Wort „Faschismus“ fehle es an jeglicher charakteristischen, begrifflichen Bedeutung, liefern andere ausführliche Definitionen seiner –vermeintlich oder tatsächlich – wesentlichen Merkmale. Es handelt sich zweifelsohne um einen Begriff, dessen genaue Bestimmung eine einzigartige Herausforderung darstellt. Roger Griffin, einer der führenden Experten auf dem Gebiet der Faschismusforschung, analysiert mit einzigartiger begrifflicher Klarheit und zugleich sehr lesbar die Ideologie des Faschismus. Er untersucht Ursprung und Entwicklung des Faschismus als politisches Konzept von seinen historischen Anfängen im Italien der 1920er-Jahre bis hin zur Gegenwart – und leitet uns durch das verworrene Labyrinth an Debatten über Natur, Bedeutung und Definitionen des Faschismus. Mit Kompetenz und Präzision beleuchtet Griffin die faschistische Dynamik als utopische Ideologie von nationaler und zugleich ‚rassischer‘ Wiedergeburt. Dabei untersucht er insbesondere auch die Wandelbarkeit des Faschismus über den Zweiten Weltkrieg hinaus und ermöglicht so ein Verständnis faschistischer Elemente in gegenwärtigen politischen Phänomenen wie der griechischen Goldenen Morgenröte, Marine Le Pens Rassemblement National oder der Partei Alternative für Deutschland. Nicht nur für Studierende der politischen Theorie, der Ideengeschichte und der Neuesten Geschichte Deutschlands, Europas und der Welt ist dieser kompakte und fesselnde Band von großem Interesse, sondern auch für alle, die angesichts des vieldiskutierten Ansteigens faschistischer politischer Aktivitäten in Sorge sind. Roger Griffins Einsichten in die Faschismusforschung werden dabei erstmalig in deutscher Sprache zugänglich gemacht. In einem hochaktuellen Nachwort widmet sich Fabian Virchow, Professor für Politikwissenschaften und Experte für Rechtsextremismus und Neonazismus, der Frage, inwieweit sich der Faschismusbegriff auch auf die gegenwärtige Partei Alternative für Deutschland anwenden lässt
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-24T22:30:40.659Z
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STEINER, George. Antigones. How the Antigone Legend has Endured in Western Literature, Art, and Thought. . New Haven London : Yale University Press, 1996. Literary criticism. ISBN 978-0-300-06915-0.
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Read_Status_Date: 2025-05-21T04:37:59.561Z
Bildquellen
- German Uranium Machine 1945: Brookhaven National Laboratory, courtesy, AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Goudsmit Collection
- Deutsche Infanterie während eines Gasangriffs in Flandern. (1916-1918): Deutsches Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-R05923
- Fritz Haber: Max-Planck-Gesellschaft | Unbekannt
- German Uranium Machine 1945: Brookhaven National Laboratory, courtesy, AIP Emilio Segrè Visual Archives, Goudsmit Collection
