Schweizerisch-US-amerikanischer theoretischer Physiker deutscher Herkunft
1879—1955
Nobelpreis: 1921, Physik
— Für seine Verdienste um die theoretische Physik
Albert Einstein hatte sich bereits im Ersten Weltkrieg gegen den Krieg gestellt. Unter der Nazi-Herrschaft galten seine Beiträge zur Physik als »jüdische Physik« und wurden von Vertretern der »Deutschen Physik« abgelehnt.
Zusammen mit dem Physiker Leó Szilárd (1898–1964) entwarf er den Brief an Präsident Roosevelt, der die Befürchtungen vor einer deutschen Bombe weckte und dadurch die Begründung für das Manhattan Project lieferte.
Nach dem Krieg äußerte der überzeugte Pazifist, dass er, wenn er gewusst hätte, dass die Deutschen nicht in der Lage waren, eine Atombombe zu bauen, den Brief nicht geschrieben hättem Treffen spekulativ.
Quellen
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KLATT, Johanna und Robert LORENZ, 2011. Manifeste: Geschichte Und Gegenwart Des Politischen Appells [online]. Bielefeld: Transcript. Studien des Göttinger Instituts für Demokratieforschung zur Geschichte politischer und gesellschaftlicher Kontroversen, Band 1. ISBN 978-3-8376-1679-8. Verfügbar unter: https://openresearchlibrary.org/content/e0b41966-588f-4b71-9806-52ad332ea945
Wenn auch noch von deutscher Seite darauf gehofft wurde, die öffentliche Meinung in den neutralen Staaten mit dem „Aufruf“ beeinflussen zu können, geht es den Verfassern und Unterzeichnern in erster Linie um die Demonstration einer Gesinnung, für die man mit der gesamten persona einsteht. Insofern zeigt sich am Manifest der 93 als Ausdruck zivilgesellschaftlichen Engagements ein spezieller Typus von Politik, der auf die moralische Entrüstung abstellt., [kein Datum].
Wie gezeigt werden konnte, muss das Manifest als Phänomen zivilgesellschaftlichen Engagements keineswegs immer zivilisierend, liberalisierend oder demokratisierend wirken, sondern kann – angepasst an den jeweiligen politischen Raum – auch als Mitteilungsorgan fungieren, um der Forderung nach einer Militarisierung oder Entzivilisierung Ausdruck zu verleihen., [kein Datum].
HIRSCHFELD, Gerhard, Gerd KRUMEICH, Irina RENZ und Markus PÖHLMANN (Hrsg.), 2014. Kriegsverlauf. In: Enzyklopädie erster weltkrieg. Aktualisierte und erweiterte studienausgabe. 2. Aufl., erneut aktualisierte und erweiterte Studienausgabe. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. UTB Geschichte, 8396. ISBN 978-3-8385-8551-2
HIRSCHFELD, Gerhard, Gerd KRUMEICH, Irina RENZ und Markus PÖHLMANN (Hrsg.), 2014. Chronik 1914-1918. In: Enzyklopädie erster weltkrieg. Aktualisierte und erweiterte studienausgabe. 2. Aufl., erneut aktualisierte und erweiterte Studienausgabe. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. UTB Geschichte, 8396. ISBN 978-3-8385-8551-2
Zerstörung der Bibliothek von Löwen durch dt. Truppen., [kein Datum].
Serbien erklärt Deutschland den Krieg., [kein Datum].
HIRSCHFELD, Gerhard, Gerd KRUMEICH, Irina RENZ und Markus PÖHLMANN (Hrsg.), 2014. B. In: Enzyklopädie erster weltkrieg. Aktualisierte und erweiterte studienausgabe. 2. Aufl., erneut aktualisierte und erweiterte Studienausgabe. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. UTB Geschichte, 8396. ISBN 978-3-8385-8551-2
Vährend des Jahres 1918 waren 20 - 30 % aller amerikanischen Verluste durch Gas verursacht , woraus hervorgeht , daß die Gaskampfstoffe eines der mächtigsten Kriegsmittel bilden . Die Berichte zeigen aber , daß bei Ausrüstung der Truppen mit Masken und anderen Gas abwehrmitteln nur 341⁄2 der Gaserkrankungen zum Tode führten . Dies lehrt , daß sich die Gaswaffe nicht nur Zzu einer der wirksamsten , sondern zugleich zu einer der humansten Waffen ausgestalten läßt ., [kein Datum].
HABER, Fritz, 1924. Fünf Vorträge aus den Jahren 1920 - 1923 : Über die Darstellung des Ammoniaks aus Stickstoff und Wasserstoff; Die Chemie im Kriege; Das Zeitalter der Chemie; Neue Arbeitsweisen; Zur Geschichte des Gaskrieges [online]. Berlin: Julius Springer. [Zugriff am: 5 Juni 2025]. Verfügbar unter: http://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/7207850
Badische Landesbibliothek Karlsruhe
HABER, Fritz, [kein Datum]. Die Chemie im Kriege
The big science type structures of research in Haber’s institute faced their share of criticism among colleagues: “I hope the lion does not lay its hand on our modest department”, complained Lise Meitner who worked next door to Haber at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institute for Chemistry, “the Haber people treat us of course like conquered territory; they take whatever they want, not what they need”, [kein Datum].
Already in the final phase of the war, Haber pursued the idea to continue military poison gas research under the pretence of civilian pest control. He was quite aware that the victorious Entente would prohibit any further military research, and he wanted to avoid anything that could be used as a pretext to close down his Institute as a whole. He pulled off an ingenious coup when he succeeded in transferring his institute’s pharmacological department to the unsuspected Biological Reich Institute for Agriculture and Forestry (Biologische Reichsanstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft). There, it could hide under the cover of the laboratory for physiological zoology. Haber was able to raise generous anonymous funds to finance additional scientific and technical staff, new buildings, laboratory animals, and testing equipment. A deeper look into the sources reveals that he carried out a top-secret transfer of considerable funds from the German military, the Reichswehr, to the Biological Reichsanstalt. These funds covered the running costs of its physiological laboratory, which developed and tested poison gases not only for pest control, but also for military purposes. The long-term deal was initiated and arranged by Haber, whose role as mediator and organizer can hardly be overestimated, [kein Datum].
The first major poison gas attack, at Ypres, on April 22, 1915 is irrevocably linked with Fritz Haber, the 1918 Nobel laureate in chemistry. The developments that connect the place, time, and person, are paradigmatic., [kein Datum].
Ida Noddack hatte schon 1934 die Hypothese vertreten, dass die Kernspaltung des Urans theoretisch möglich sei. In einer Publikation am 10. März 1939 zog sie - pünktlich zu Hahns 60. Geburtstag - die angebliche Entdeckung der Transurane durch Hahn und Straßmann erheblich in Zweifel. Da sich Hahn geweigert hatte, die Hypothese von Ida Noddack 1934 zu veröffentlichen, kam diese Kritik vielleicht aus Rache, denn es war tatsächlich Ida Noddack, die das theoretische Fundament für die Kernspaltung schon zuvor gelegt hatte. Sie fühlte sich nicht ganz zu Unrecht um ihre Verdienste geprellt. Hahn und Straßmann, aber auch andere Forscherteams, führten die früheren Experimente erneut durch, diesmal mit dem Wissen um die Kernspaltung. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass sämtliche „Transurane“ Bruchstücke von Umwandlungsprodukten der Kernspaltung waren., [kein Datum].
1. The Burning of Louvain, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
MOMMSEN, Wolfgang J. (Hrsg.), 1995. Kultur und Krieg [online]. De Gruyter Oldenbourg. [Zugriff am: 3 Juni 2025]. Die Rolle der Intellektuellen, Künstler und Schriftsteller im Ersten Weltkrieg. ISBN 978-3-11-044653-1. Verfügbar unter: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110446531
JIN, Sabrina L, Jessica KOLIS, Jessica PARKER, Dylan A PROCTOR, Dimitri PRYBYLSKI, Claire WARDLE, Neetu ABAD, Kathryn A BROOKMEYER, Christopher VOEGELI und Howard CHIOU, 2024. Social histories of public health misinformation and infodemics: case studies of four pandemics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases [online]. 1 Oktober 2024. Bd. 24, Nr. 10, S. e638–e646. DOI 10.1016/S1473-3099(24)00105-1. Verfügbar unter: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1473309924001051
SCHRAMM, Martin, 2007. Das Deutschlandbild in der britischen Presse 1912-1919. Berlin: Akademie Verl
WITTEK, Thomas und Thomas WITTEK, 2005. Auf ewig Feind?: Das Deutschlandbild in den britischen Massenmedien nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Historischen Instituts London/ Publications of the German Historical Institute London Ser, v. 59. ISBN 978-3-486-57846-1 978-3-486-70766-3
HIEBERT, Miriam E. und Timothy W. KOETH, 2023. The uranium club. Chicago Review Press
The killings continued the next day and night, Wednesday 26 August. One can imagine the terror suffered by the people, many of whom were driven out of their homes into streets filled with smoke, rubble from destroyed buildings, and human and animal corpses. They were manhandled, insulted, and menaced by soldiers, and witnessed scenes of unprecedented brutality. In all, 248 citizens of Louvain were killed. Some 1,500 inhabitants were deported to Germany on a long journey in railway cattle-wagons, including over 100 women and children, and were forced to endure the harsh conditions in Munster camp until January 1915., [kein Datum].
In the university library, the troops by contrast did a thorough job of destruction. The neighbouring houses were broken into and set alight, and at about 11.30 p.m., soldiers broke into the library. Using petrol and inflammable pastilles, they set it on fire. The library burned for several days, but within ten hours, little remained of the building and its collections apart from blackened walls, stone columns, and the glowing embers of books (see Figs. 1 and 2)., [kein Datum].
Soldiers executed several captives on the way, on the mere suspicion that they had fired, without waiting for orders from their officers. When some of the corpses were exhumed in January 1915 on German orders, it was found that there were not only bullet wounds, but also signs that the victims had been injured by bayonets, possibly tortured. This indicates that the ‘executions’ were carried out with extreme violence and emotions of great hatred., [kein Datum].
together with his son., [kein Datum].
The worst was yet to come. In front of their terrified families some men were beaten and shot on the spot. Hubert David-Fischbach, a man of eighty-three, who had had German officers quartered in his house, was tied up and made to watch his house burn, beaten with bayonets and finally shot, [kein Datum].
On the pretext, or possibly the genuine misapprehension on the part of many soldiers, that they were being fired on by Belgian civilians, the hunt began for these presumed ‘francs-tireurs’, a term that recalled the French civilian volunteers in the war of 1870—1. This was a search for a chimera, for in reality no civilians had fired, the population having been disarmed, and in any case in a town teeming with enemy troops it would have been madness to start an insurrection. The inhabitants were dragged out of their homes, and the houses were set on fire., [kein Datum].
In the late afternoon of Tuesday, 25 August, while many soldiers were in their quarters to change and wash their clothing, the alarm was sounded at about 6 p.m. The men rushed out into the streets to assembly points, often still wearing clothes lent to them by their hosts. Some two hours later, firing suddenly broke out at several points in the town, and wild shooting ensued, with troops breaking into houses and firing down into the streets from the upper windows, and others firing from the streets into the houses. The shooting bore all the signs of panic: troops were on high alert because the Belgian army had launched a counter-attack from the north, forcing the German forces to withdraw to Louvain. The retreating German units entered Louvain towards nightfall, provoking wild shouts of die Engländer sind da! (‘the British have arrived!’); a German troop train entering the station from the south-east was taken to be carrying the enemy, and both arrivals unleashed hysterical shooting which the officers had great difficulty in stopping., [kein Datum].
Day by day more troops arrived, many of them continuing their march towards the front after a short rest, but some remaining to be billeted on the inhabitants, who were expected to supply food and drink. For several days there was an oppressive quiet, enforced by the presence of about 15,000 troops and the measures of the occupation: posters warned of ruthless measures if weapons were found or in case of the slightest resistance; the front doors of houses had to be kept open all night and windows lit. Heightening the anxiety of the citizens, hostages were taken from among the city’s notables of the municipal administration, the magistrates, and the university, who would forfeit their lives if there were any hostile acts. The remaining cash in the city hall, three thousand francs, was requisitioned., [kein Datum].
After the Belgian army had left the town on 18 August, the Germans entered the next day without encountering resistance. For several hours, troops filed into the town in perfect order: first cyclists, followed by infantry marching to the sound of fifes and drums, singing songs such as Die Wacht am Rhein (‘The Watch on the Rhine’). To the inhabitants it appeared to be a long, interminable column of masses, wearing their ‘hateful pointed helmets’, fringed by the ‘elegant and haughty’ cavalry., [kein Datum].
The Louvain civic authorities had confiscated all weapons in private hands in early August, to prevent any spontaneous individual acts of resistance that might provoke reprisal, and published warnings that only the regular army was entitled to take military action., [kein Datum].
In the area around Liège, closest to the German border, some 640 civilians 2 had been killed by 12 August, but no precise numbers were known at the time. The town of Aarschot, only some ten miles north-east of Louvain, was the scene of mass killings on 19 August, with 156 dead; in Andenne, further south, 262 were killed the next day., [kein Datum].
The German troops arrived in the town in the morning of Wednesday, 19 August, to find a peaceful population frightened by the news of German cruelties perpetrated along their invasion route since 4 August., [kein Datum].
KRAMER, Alan, 2009. Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
List of maps, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Sources and Acknowledgements for Illustrations, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
5. Culture and War, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Introduction, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Content, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Index, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Notes, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
Bibliography, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
List of Illustrations, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
4. German Singularity?, 2009. In: KRAMER, Alan, Dynamic of destruction : Culture and mass killing in the first world war [online]. Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-156250-1. Verfügbar unter: http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bsb/detail.action?docID=5746771
WOLFF, Stefan L, 2001. Physiker im „Krieg der Geister“. . 2001
SCHÄFER, Michael, 2020. Sammlung der Geister : kulturkritischer Aktivismus im Umkreis Rudolf Euckens 1890-1945. 1st ed. Basel/Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH. ISBN 978-3-11-068703-3
WÜLFING, Wulf, Karin BRUNS und Rolf PARR, 1991. Historische Mythologie der Deutschen: 1798-1918. München: W. Fink Verl. ISBN 978-3-7705-2605-5
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DEAR, I. C. B. und M. R. D. FOOT, 2003. The oxford companion to world war II [online]. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-172760-3. Verfügbar unter: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198604464.001.0001/acref-9780198604464
Das Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges, 2014. In: BUCHMANN, Bertrand Michael, Weltpolitik seit 1945 [online]. Wien: Böhlau Verlag. [Zugriff am: 3 Juni 2025]. ISBN 978-3-205-79530-8 978-3-205-79277-2. Verfügbar unter: https://vr-elibrary.de/doi/10.7767/boehlau.9783205792772
3. Die Neuordnung Europas nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, 2014. In: BUCHMANN, Bertrand Michael, Weltpolitik seit 1945 [online]. Wien: Böhlau Verlag. [Zugriff am: 3 Juni 2025]. ISBN 978-3-205-79530-8 978-3-205-79277-2. Verfügbar unter: https://vr-elibrary.de/doi/10.7767/boehlau.9783205792772
Bildquellen
- Einstein, im Alter von 25 Jahren.: Wikimedia Commons
